[HCG25-P03] Trends of evaluation items to landscape appreciation until 2017 in the English journals
Keywords:landscape appreciation, appreciation items, until 2017
Introduction
We have considered trends of landscape appreciation since JpGU2013-2018. According to the definition of landscape phenomena proposed by Prof. O. Shinohara (Fig. 1), we reported the trends of studies in each part of the phenomena.
Aoki, Y. (1999) described the first landscape evaluation using psychometrical methods to be pioneered by Peterson, G.L. (1967). Before this development, they tried to find the landscape appreciation using various descriptors. They were mostly belonging to the literature or the paintings. As for the literature, the first description of mountain was found in Francesco Petrarca in 1336 of France (Kondo, T. 2002). But his description has no reliable evidence to ensure the landscape. In the field of art, Albrecht Altdorfer drew the first natural landscape in the beginning of 15th century of Germany (Cavaliere, B. 1989). But we could not measure the physical data from his picture. The literature and the art found the beauty of natural landscape by these examples. They recorded the aesthetic beauty in landscape (Thiel, P. 1968).
Jay Appleton (1980) explained the scientific reason of the landscape phenomena with physical data, e.g. geomorphysical data and meteorological data. He explained the landscape phenomena of two pictures, Constable's Weymouth Bay and Constable's sunset study of Hampstead Heath. His approach must be the scientific based explanation to find psychological phenomena of landscape using the geology and meteorology. But the psychological phenomena could deviate by the person observed and the results must be happened statistically. So the process of the landscape phenomena should be explained by stochastic process of psychology. Then scientists developed psychological approach to it.
Here, we summarize the appreciation item (the third component of the landscape phenomena).
1. The developments to establish the psychological scale of appraisal
In the trial of psychometrical method, Ekman & Kuennapas (1962) tested the difference of Nominal scale and Interval scale, and the development of SD method promoted to use many adjectives in the visual complexities (Berlyne & Peckham 1966). Hart & Graham (1967) considered “How to rate & rank landscape”.
In the development of the psychological scale, Heise (1969) tested the scale -3 to 3, and Zube, Anderson & Pitt (1973) used the numerical scale 3 to 14.
2. The psychological evaluation item of preference
Kaplan, Kaplan, & Wendt (1972) proposed to use preference for the landscape appreciation. Compared to the results obtained by SD method, “preference” is easy to understand among different cultural back ground and was popularized in many countries.
3. The developments and the use of SD method
As for the SD method proposed by Osgood & Suci (1955), it employed many pairs of adjectives to evaluate landscape and provided detailed impressions of landscape. The largest number of 240 adjectives was tested by Craik (1975). The results were too complicated and scientists would like to summarize the results. SBE (Terry & Boster 1976), AVQ (Arriaza etc. 2004) and others were statistical aggregation examples of this trial and the example of meaningful aggregation was “Coherence, Complexity, Legibility and Mystery” proposed by Kaplan (1987). These indicators were tested with the relation to the preference and other appreciations by many scientists (Stamps III 2004, and so on.).
4. Method of monetary term evaluation
Monetary term is another evaluation of landscapes and sometimes used in the physical planning (Fukahori & Kubota 2003).
5. Items based on the human behavior of landscape evaluation
The origin of the landscape appreciation was explained from the animal behavior of predation (Appleton 1975). This theory had discussed for a long time. And this behavior might propose a base appreciation of landscape (Aoki & Kitamura 2001). Consideration on the human activities, the reason of visit (Andereck et al. 1989) and the visitability (Abdulkarim & Nasar 2014) were examined and the photographing (Oku & Fukamachi 2006, Sugimoto 2013) were reported.
6. Other appraisals
There are many appreciation descriptors and even now the scientists are finding new descriptors (Collier & Scott 2008). Until now, we could find examples of this trial in absorption (Berlyne 1958), quietness (Womble & Studebaker 1981), beauty (Hull IV, Buhyoff & Daniel 1984), size (Coeterier 1994), fear and stress (Nasar & Jones 1997), positive and negative (Ryan 1998), aggression and violence (Kuo 2001), satisfaction (Kaplan & Austin 2004), overcrowding (Manning & Freimund 2004), openness (Dramstad et al. 2006), ugly (Ruell, Halleux & Teller 2013), and other descriptions.
We have considered trends of landscape appreciation since JpGU2013-2018. According to the definition of landscape phenomena proposed by Prof. O. Shinohara (Fig. 1), we reported the trends of studies in each part of the phenomena.
Aoki, Y. (1999) described the first landscape evaluation using psychometrical methods to be pioneered by Peterson, G.L. (1967). Before this development, they tried to find the landscape appreciation using various descriptors. They were mostly belonging to the literature or the paintings. As for the literature, the first description of mountain was found in Francesco Petrarca in 1336 of France (Kondo, T. 2002). But his description has no reliable evidence to ensure the landscape. In the field of art, Albrecht Altdorfer drew the first natural landscape in the beginning of 15th century of Germany (Cavaliere, B. 1989). But we could not measure the physical data from his picture. The literature and the art found the beauty of natural landscape by these examples. They recorded the aesthetic beauty in landscape (Thiel, P. 1968).
Jay Appleton (1980) explained the scientific reason of the landscape phenomena with physical data, e.g. geomorphysical data and meteorological data. He explained the landscape phenomena of two pictures, Constable's Weymouth Bay and Constable's sunset study of Hampstead Heath. His approach must be the scientific based explanation to find psychological phenomena of landscape using the geology and meteorology. But the psychological phenomena could deviate by the person observed and the results must be happened statistically. So the process of the landscape phenomena should be explained by stochastic process of psychology. Then scientists developed psychological approach to it.
Here, we summarize the appreciation item (the third component of the landscape phenomena).
1. The developments to establish the psychological scale of appraisal
In the trial of psychometrical method, Ekman & Kuennapas (1962) tested the difference of Nominal scale and Interval scale, and the development of SD method promoted to use many adjectives in the visual complexities (Berlyne & Peckham 1966). Hart & Graham (1967) considered “How to rate & rank landscape”.
In the development of the psychological scale, Heise (1969) tested the scale -3 to 3, and Zube, Anderson & Pitt (1973) used the numerical scale 3 to 14.
2. The psychological evaluation item of preference
Kaplan, Kaplan, & Wendt (1972) proposed to use preference for the landscape appreciation. Compared to the results obtained by SD method, “preference” is easy to understand among different cultural back ground and was popularized in many countries.
3. The developments and the use of SD method
As for the SD method proposed by Osgood & Suci (1955), it employed many pairs of adjectives to evaluate landscape and provided detailed impressions of landscape. The largest number of 240 adjectives was tested by Craik (1975). The results were too complicated and scientists would like to summarize the results. SBE (Terry & Boster 1976), AVQ (Arriaza etc. 2004) and others were statistical aggregation examples of this trial and the example of meaningful aggregation was “Coherence, Complexity, Legibility and Mystery” proposed by Kaplan (1987). These indicators were tested with the relation to the preference and other appreciations by many scientists (Stamps III 2004, and so on.).
4. Method of monetary term evaluation
Monetary term is another evaluation of landscapes and sometimes used in the physical planning (Fukahori & Kubota 2003).
5. Items based on the human behavior of landscape evaluation
The origin of the landscape appreciation was explained from the animal behavior of predation (Appleton 1975). This theory had discussed for a long time. And this behavior might propose a base appreciation of landscape (Aoki & Kitamura 2001). Consideration on the human activities, the reason of visit (Andereck et al. 1989) and the visitability (Abdulkarim & Nasar 2014) were examined and the photographing (Oku & Fukamachi 2006, Sugimoto 2013) were reported.
6. Other appraisals
There are many appreciation descriptors and even now the scientists are finding new descriptors (Collier & Scott 2008). Until now, we could find examples of this trial in absorption (Berlyne 1958), quietness (Womble & Studebaker 1981), beauty (Hull IV, Buhyoff & Daniel 1984), size (Coeterier 1994), fear and stress (Nasar & Jones 1997), positive and negative (Ryan 1998), aggression and violence (Kuo 2001), satisfaction (Kaplan & Austin 2004), overcrowding (Manning & Freimund 2004), openness (Dramstad et al. 2006), ugly (Ruell, Halleux & Teller 2013), and other descriptions.